---
title: Lec 21 - SQL
subtitle: "<br/> Statistical Programming"
author: "Sta 323 | Spring 2022"
date: "<br/> Dr. Colin Rundel"
output:
  xaringan::moon_reader:
    css: ["slides.css"]
    lib_dir: libs
    nature:
      highlightStyle: solarized-light
      highlightLines: true
      countIncrementalSlides: false
      ratio: "16:9"
---
exclude: true

```{r, message=FALSE, warning=FALSE, include=FALSE}
options(
  htmltools.dir.version = FALSE, # for blogdown
  width = 80,
  tibble.width = 80
)

knitr::opts_chunk$set(
  fig.align = "center"
)

htmltools::tagList(rmarkdown::html_dependency_font_awesome())


library(dplyr)
```

---

## SQL

Structures Query Language is a special purpose language for interacting with (querying and modifying) indexed tabular data. 

* ANSI Standard but with dialect divergence (MySql, Postgres, SQLite, etc.)

* This functionality maps very closely (but not exactly) with the data manipulation verbs present in dplyr.

* SQL is likely to be a foundational skill if you go into industry - learn it and put it on your CV

---

## Connecting via CLI

```shell
cr173@trig2 [class_2022_04_25]$ sqlite3 employees.sqlite

SQLite version 3.36.0 2021-06-18 18:36:39
Enter ".help" for usage hints.
Connected to a transient in-memory database.
Use ".open FILENAME" to reopen on a persistent database.
sqlite>
```

---

## Table information

The following is specific to SQLite

```sqlite
sqlite> .tables

employees
```

```sqlite
sqlite> .schema employees

CREATE TABLE `employees` (
  `name` TEXT,
  `email` TEXT,
  `salary` REAL,
  `dept` TEXT
);
```

```sqlite
sqlite> .indices employees
```

---

## SELECT Statements

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees;

Alice|alice@company.com|52000.0|Accounting
Bob|bob@company.com|40000.0|Accounting
Carol|carol@company.com|30000.0|Sales
Dave|dave@company.com|33000.0|Accounting
Eve|eve@company.com|44000.0|Sales
Frank|frank@comany.com|37000.0|Sales
```

---

## Pretty Output

We can make this table output a little nicer with some additonal SQLite options:

```sqlite
sqlite> .mode column
sqlite> .headers on
```

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees;

name        email              salary      dept      
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales     
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting
Eve         eve@company.com    44000.0     Sales     
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales  
```

---

## select() using SELECT

We can subset for certain columns (and rename them) using `SELECT`

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT name AS first_name, salary FROM employees;

first_name  salary    
----------  ----------
Alice       52000.0   
Bob         40000.0   
Carol       30000.0   
Dave        33000.0   
Eve         44000.0   
Frank       37000.0  
```

---

## arrange() using ORDER BY

We can sort our results by adding `ORDER BY` to our `SELECT` statement

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT name AS first_name, salary FROM employees ORDER BY salary;

first_name  salary    
----------  ----------
Carol       30000.0   
Dave        33000.0   
Frank       37000.0   
Bob         40000.0   
Eve         44000.0   
Alice       52000.0  
```

---

We can sort in the opposite order by adding `DESC` 

```sqlite
SELECT name AS first_name, salary FROM employees ORDER BY salary DESC;

first_name  salary    
----------  ----------
Alice       52000.0   
Eve         44000.0   
Bob         40000.0   
Frank       37000.0   
Dave        33000.0   
Carol       30000.0  
```

---

## filter() using WHERE

We can filter rows by adding `WHERE` to our statements

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary < 40000;

name        email              salary      dept      
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales     
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales  

sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary < 40000 AND dept = "Sales";

name        email              salary      dept      
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales     
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales 
```

---

## group_by() using GROUP BY

We can create groups for the purpose of summarizing using `GROUP BY`. As with dplyr it is not terribly useful by itself.

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees GROUP BY dept;

name        email             salary      dept      
----------  ----------------  ----------  ----------
Dave        dave@company.com  33000.0     Accounting
Frank       frank@comany.com  37000.0     Sales     
```

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT dept, COUNT(*) AS n FROM employees GROUP BY dept;

dept        n         
----------  ----------
Accounting  3         
Sales       3   
```


---

## head() using LIMIT

We can limit the number of rows we get by using `LIMIT` and order results with `ORDER BY` with or without `DESC`

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees LIMIT 3;

name        email              salary      dept      
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales 
```

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY name DESC LIMIT 3;

name        email             salary      dept      
----------  ----------------  ----------  ----------
Frank       frank@comany.com  37000.0     Sales     
Eve         eve@company.com   44000.0     Sales     
Dave        dave@company.com  33000.0     Accounting
```

---

## Exercise 1

Using sqlite calculate the following quantities,

1. The total costs in payroll for this company

2. The average salary within each department

.footnote[
[SQLite's aggregation function documentation](https://www.sqlite.org/lang_aggfunc.html)
]

---

## Import CSV files

```sqlite
sqlite> .mode csv
sqlite> .import phone.csv phone
sqlite> .tables

employees  phone   

sqlite> .mode column
sqlite> SELECT * FROM phone;

name        phone       
----------  ------------
Bob         919 555-1111
Carol       919 555-2222
Eve         919 555-3333
Frank       919 555-4444
```

---

## SQL Joins

.center[
```{r echo=FALSE}
knitr::include_graphics("imgs/sql_joins.png")
```
]

---
background-image: url(imgs/venn-join1.png)
background-position: center
background-size: contain

.footnote[From Data Geekery SQL Masterclass]

---
background-image: url(imgs/venn-cross-join1.png)
background-position: center
background-size: contain

.footnote[From Data Geekery SQL Masterclass]

---

## Joins - Default

By default SQLite uses a `CROSS JOIN` which is not terribly useful most of the time (similar to R's `expand.grid()`)

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees JOIN phone;

name        email              salary      dept        name        phone       
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------  ----------  ------------
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting  Bob         919 555-1111
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting  Carol       919 555-2222
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting  Eve         919 555-3333
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting  Frank       919 555-4444
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting  Bob         919 555-1111
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting  Carol       919 555-2222
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting  Eve         919 555-3333
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting  Frank       919 555-4444
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales       Bob         919 555-1111
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales       Carol       919 555-2222
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales       Eve         919 555-3333
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales       Frank       919 555-4444
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting  Bob         919 555-1111
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting  Carol       919 555-2222
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting  Eve         919 555-3333
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting  Frank       919 555-4444
Eve         eve@company.com    44000.0     Sales       Bob         919 555-1111
Eve         eve@company.com    44000.0     Sales       Carol       919 555-2222
Eve         eve@company.com    44000.0     Sales       Eve         919 555-3333
Eve         eve@company.com    44000.0     Sales       Frank       919 555-4444
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales       Bob         919 555-1111
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales       Carol       919 555-2222
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales       Eve         919 555-3333
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales       Frank       919 555-4444
```


---

## Inner Join

If you want SQLite to find the columns to merge on automatically then we prefix the join with `NATURAL`.

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees NATURAL JOIN phone;

name        email            salary      dept        phone       
----------  ---------------  ----------  ----------  ------------
Bob         bob@company.com  40000.0     Accounting  919 555-1111
Carol       carol@company.c  30000.0     Sales       919 555-2222
Eve         eve@company.com  44000.0     Sales       919 555-3333
Frank       frank@comany.co  37000.0     Sales       919 555-4444
```

---

## Inner Join - Explicit

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees JOIN phone ON employees.name = phone.name;

name        email            salary      dept        name        phone       
----------  ---------------  ----------  ----------  ----------  ------------
Bob         bob@company.com  40000.0     Accounting  Bob         919 555-1111
Carol       carol@company.c  30000.0     Sales       Carol       919 555-2222
Eve         eve@company.com  44000.0     Sales       Eve         919 555-3333
Frank       frank@comany.co  37000.0     Sales       Frank       919 555-4444
```

--

<br/>

to avoid the duplicate `name` column we can use `USING` instead of `ON`

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees JOIN phone USING(name);
name   email              salary   dept        phone       
-----  -----------------  -------  ----------  ------------
Bob    bob@company.com    40000.0  Accounting  919 555-1111
Carol  carol@company.com  30000.0  Sales       919 555-2222
Eve    eve@company.com    44000.0  Sales       919 555-3333
Frank  frank@comany.com   37000.0  Sales       919 555-4444
```

<br/>

As a rule, the `USING` (or `NATURAL`) clause is used if the column names match between tables, otherwise `ON` is needed.

---

## Left Join - Natural

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees NATURAL LEFT JOIN phone;

name        email              salary      dept        phone     
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------  ----------
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting            
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting  919 555-11
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales       919 555-22
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting            
Eve         eve@company.com    44000.0     Sales       919 555-33
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales       919 555-44
```

---

## Left Join - Explicit

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM employees LEFT JOIN phone ON employees.name = phone.name;

name        email              salary      dept        name        phone     
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------  ----------  ----------
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting                        
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting  Bob         919 555-11
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales       Carol       919 555-22
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting                        
Eve         eve@company.com    44000.0     Sales       Eve         919 555-33
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales       Frank       919 555-44
```

--

<br/>

As above to avoid the duplicate `name` column we can use `USING`, or can be more selective about our returned columns,

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT employees.*, phone FROM employees LEFT JOIN phone ON employees.name = phone.name;

name   email              salary   dept        phone       
-----  -----------------  -------  ----------  ------------
Alice  alice@company.com  52000.0  Accounting              
Bob    bob@company.com    40000.0  Accounting  919 555-1111
Carol  carol@company.com  30000.0  Sales       919 555-2222
Dave   dave@company.com   33000.0  Accounting              
Eve    eve@company.com    44000.0  Sales       919 555-3333
Frank  frank@comany.com   37000.0  Sales       919 555-4444
```



---

## Other Joins

Note that SQLite does not support directly support an `OUTER JOIN` (e.g a full join in dplyr) or a `RIGHT JOIN`.

- A `RIGHT JOIN` can be achieved by switch the two tables (i.e. A right join B is equivalent to B left join A)

- An `OUTER JOIN` can be achieved via using `UNION ALL` with both left joins (A on B and B on A)

---

## Creating an index

```sqlite
sqlite> CREATE INDEX index_name ON employees (name);
sqlite> .indices

index_name

sqlite> CREATE INDEX index_name_email ON employees (name,email);
sqlite> .indices

index_name
index_name_email
```

---

## Subqueries

We can nest tables within tables for the purpose of queries.

```sqlite
SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM employees NATURAL LEFT JOIN phone) WHERE phone IS NULL;

name        email              salary      dept        phone     
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------  ----------
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting            
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting            
```

```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM employees NATURAL LEFT JOIN phone) WHERE phone IS NOT NULL;

name        email            salary      dept        phone       
----------  ---------------  ----------  ----------  ------------
Bob         bob@company.com  40000.0     Accounting  919 555-1111
Carol       carol@company.c  30000.0     Sales       919 555-2222
Eve         eve@company.com  44000.0     Sales       919 555-3333
Frank       frank@comany.co  37000.0     Sales       919 555-4444
```

---

## Exercise 2

Lets try to create a table that has a new column - `abv_avg` which contains how much more (or less) than the average, for their department, each person is paid.

Hint - This will require joining a subquery.


`employees.sqlite` is available in the exercises repo.

<!--
```sqlite
sqlite> SELECT *, salary-avg AS diff FROM employees NATURAL JOIN  (SELECT dept, ROUND(AVG(salary),2) AS avg FROM employees GROUP BY dept);

name        email              salary      dept        avg         diff      
----------  -----------------  ----------  ----------  ----------  ----------
Alice       alice@company.com  52000.0     Accounting  41666.67    10333.33  
Bob         bob@company.com    40000.0     Accounting  41666.67    -1666.67  
Carol       carol@company.com  30000.0     Sales       37000.0     -7000.0   
Dave        dave@company.com   33000.0     Accounting  41666.67    -8666.67  
Eve         eve@company.com    44000.0     Sales       37000.0     7000.0    
Frank       frank@comany.com   37000.0     Sales       37000.0     0.0 
```
-->

---
class:center, middle

# Query performance

---

## Setup

To give us a bit more variety, we have created another SQLite database `flights.sqlite` that contains both `nycflights13::planes` and `nycflights13::planes`, the latter of which has details on the characteristics of the planes in the dataset as identified by their tail numbers.

```{r eval=FALSE}
db = DBI::dbConnect(RSQLite::SQLite(), "flights.sqlite")
dplyr::copy_to(db, nycflights13::flights, name = "flights", temporary = FALSE)
dplyr::copy_to(db, nycflights13::planes, name = "planes", temporary = FALSE)
DBI::dbDisconnect(db)
```

<br/>

All of the following code will be run in the SQLite command line interface, to make sure you have the database make sure you've created the database and copied both the flights and planes tables into the db. 

The database can then be opened from the terminal tab using,
```shell
sqlite3 flights.sqlite
```

---

As before we should set a could of configuration options so that our output is readable, we include `.timer on` so that we get time our queries.

```sql
sqlite> .headers on
sqlite> .mode column
sqlite> .timer on
```

--

.small[

```sql
sqlite> SELECT * FROM flights LIMIT 10;
year  month  day  dep_time  sched_dep_time  dep_delay  arr_time  sched_arr_time  arr_delay  carrier  flight  tailnum  origin  dest  air_time  distance  hour  minute  time_hour   
----  -----  ---  --------  --------------  ---------  --------  --------------  ---------  -------  ------  -------  ------  ----  --------  --------  ----  ------  ------------
2013  1      1    517       515             2.0        830       819             11.0       UA       1545    N14228   EWR     IAH   227.0     1400.0    5.0   15.0    1357034400.0
2013  1      1    533       529             4.0        850       830             20.0       UA       1714    N24211   LGA     IAH   227.0     1416.0    5.0   29.0    1357034400.0
2013  1      1    542       540             2.0        923       850             33.0       AA       1141    N619AA   JFK     MIA   160.0     1089.0    5.0   40.0    1357034400.0
2013  1      1    544       545             -1.0       1004      1022            -18.0      B6       725     N804JB   JFK     BQN   183.0     1576.0    5.0   45.0    1357034400.0
2013  1      1    554       600             -6.0       812       837             -25.0      DL       461     N668DN   LGA     ATL   116.0     762.0     6.0   0.0     1357038000.0
2013  1      1    554       558             -4.0       740       728             12.0       UA       1696    N39463   EWR     ORD   150.0     719.0     5.0   58.0    1357034400.0
2013  1      1    555       600             -5.0       913       854             19.0       B6       507     N516JB   EWR     FLL   158.0     1065.0    6.0   0.0     1357038000.0
2013  1      1    557       600             -3.0       709       723             -14.0      EV       5708    N829AS   LGA     IAD   53.0      229.0     6.0   0.0     1357038000.0
2013  1      1    557       600             -3.0       838       846             -8.0       B6       79      N593JB   JFK     MCO   140.0     944.0     6.0   0.0     1357038000.0
2013  1      1    558       600             -2.0       753       745             8.0        AA       301     N3ALAA   LGA     ORD   138.0     733.0     6.0   0.0     1357038000.0
Run Time: real 0.051 user 0.000258 sys 0.000126
```

```sql
sqlite> SELECT * FROM planes LIMIT 10;
tailnum  year  type                     manufacturer      model      engines  seats  speed  engine   
-------  ----  -----------------------  ----------------  ---------  -------  -----  -----  ---------
N10156   2004  Fixed wing multi engine  EMBRAER           EMB-145XR  2        55            Turbo-fan
N102UW   1998  Fixed wing multi engine  AIRBUS INDUSTRIE  A320-214   2        182           Turbo-fan
N103US   1999  Fixed wing multi engine  AIRBUS INDUSTRIE  A320-214   2        182           Turbo-fan
N104UW   1999  Fixed wing multi engine  AIRBUS INDUSTRIE  A320-214   2        182           Turbo-fan
N10575   2002  Fixed wing multi engine  EMBRAER           EMB-145LR  2        55            Turbo-fan
N105UW   1999  Fixed wing multi engine  AIRBUS INDUSTRIE  A320-214   2        182           Turbo-fan
N107US   1999  Fixed wing multi engine  AIRBUS INDUSTRIE  A320-214   2        182           Turbo-fan
N108UW   1999  Fixed wing multi engine  AIRBUS INDUSTRIE  A320-214   2        182           Turbo-fan
N109UW   1999  Fixed wing multi engine  AIRBUS INDUSTRIE  A320-214   2        182           Turbo-fan
N110UW   1999  Fixed wing multi engine  AIRBUS INDUSTRIE  A320-214   2        182           Turbo-fan
Run Time: real 0.001 user 0.000159 sys 0.000106
```
]

---

## Exercise 3

Write a query that determines the total number of seats available on all of the planes that flew out of New York in 2013.

---

## Options

Incorrect:

```sql
sqlite> SELECT sum(seats) FROM flights NATURAL LEFT JOIN planes;

sum(seats)
----------
614366    
Run Time: real 0.148 user 0.139176 sys 0.007804
```

--

Join and select:

```sql
sqlite> SELECT sum(seats) FROM flights LEFT JOIN planes USING (tailnum);

sum(seats)
----------
38851317  
Run Time: real 0.176 user 0.167993 sys 0.007354
```

Select then join:

```sql
sqlite> SELECT sum(seats) FROM (SELECT tailnum FROM flights) LEFT JOIN (SELECT tailnum, seats FROM planes) USING (tailnum);

sum(seats)
----------
38851317  
Run Time: real 0.174 user 0.166085 sys 0.007122
```

---

## `EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN`

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN SELECT sum(seats) FROM flights LEFT JOIN planes USING (tailnum);

QUERY PLAN
|--SCAN flights
`--SEARCH planes USING AUTOMATIC COVERING INDEX (tailnum=?)
```

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN SELECT sum(seats) FROM (SELECT tailnum FROM flights) LFET JOIN (SELECT tailnum, seats FROM planes) USING (tailnum);

QUERY PLAN
|--MATERIALIZE SUBQUERY 2
|  `--SCAN planes
|--SCAN flights
`--SEARCH SUBQUERY 2 USING AUTOMATIC COVERING INDEX (tailnum=?)
```

--

Key things to look for:

* `SCAN` - indicates that a full table scan is occurring 

* `SEARCH` - indicates that only a subset of the table rows are visited

* `AUTOMATIC COVERING INDEX` - indicates that a temporary index has been created for this query

---

## Adding indexes

```sql
sqlite> CREATE INDEX flight_tailnum ON flights (tailnum);
Run Time: real 0.241 user 0.210099 sys 0.027611
```

```sql
sqlite> CREATE INDEX plane_tailnum ON planes (tailnum);
Run Time: real 0.003 user 0.001407 sys 0.001442
```

--

```sql
sqlite> .indexes
flight_tailnum  plane_tailnum
```

---

## Improvements?

```sql
sqlite> SELECT sum(seats) FROM flights LEFT JOIN planes USING (tailnum);
sum(seats)
----------
38851317  
Run Time: real 0.118 user 0.115899 sys 0.001952
```

```sql
sqlite> SELECT sum(seats) FROM (SELECT tailnum FROM flights) LEFT JOIN (SELECT tailnum, seats FROM planes) USING (tailnum);
sum(seats)
----------
38851317  
Run Time: real 0.131 user 0.129165 sys 0.001214
```

--

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN SELECT sum(seats) FROM flights LEFT JOIN planes USING (tailnum);
QUERY PLAN
|--SCAN flights USING COVERING INDEX flight_tailnum
`--SEARCH planes USING INDEX plane_tailnum (tailnum=?)
```

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN SELECT sum(seats) FROM (SELECT tailnum FROM flights) LEFT JOIN (SELECT tailnum, seats FROM planes) USING (tailnum);
QUERY PLAN
|--MATERIALIZE SUBQUERY 2
|  `--SCAN planes
|--SCAN flights USING COVERING INDEX flight_tailnum
`--SEARCH SUBQUERY 2 USING AUTOMATIC COVERING INDEX (tailnum=?)
```

---

## Filtering

```sql
sqlite> SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin = "EWR";
origin  count(*)
------  --------
EWR     120835
Run Time: real 0.034 user 0.028124 sys 0.005847
```

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN  SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin = "EWR";
QUERY PLAN
`--SCAN flights
```

--


```sql
sqlite> SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin != "EWR";
origin  count(*)
------  --------
LGA     215941
Run Time: real 0.036 user 0.029798 sys 0.006171
```

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN  SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin != "EWR";
QUERY PLAN
`--SCAN flights
```

--

```sql
sqlite> CREATE INDEX flights_orig_dest ON flights (origin, dest);
Run Time: real 0.267 user 0.232886 sys 0.030270
```

---

## Filtering w/ indexes

```sql
sqlite> SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin = "EWR";
origin  count(*)
------  --------
EWR     120835
Run Time: real 0.007 user 0.006419 sys 0.000159

sqlite> SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin != "EWR";
origin  count(*)
------  --------
JFK     215941
Run Time: real 0.020 user 0.019203 sys 0.000497
```

--

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN  SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin = "EWR";
QUERY PLAN
`--SEARCH flights USING COVERING INDEX flights_orig_dest (origin=?)

sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN  SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin != "EWR";
QUERY PLAN
`--SCAN flights USING COVERING INDEX flights_orig_dest
```

---

## `!=` alternative

```sql
sqlite> SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin > "EWR" OR origin < "EWR";
origin  count(*)
------  --------
JFK     215941
Run Time: real 0.022 user 0.021148 sys 0.001290
```

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN SELECT origin, count(*) FROM flights WHERE origin > "EWR" OR origin < "EWR";
QUERY PLAN
`--MULTI-INDEX OR
   |--INDEX 1
   |  `--SEARCH flights USING COVERING INDEX flights_orig_dest (origin>?)
   `--INDEX 2
      `--SEARCH flights USING COVERING INDEX flights_orig_dest (origin<?)
```

---

## What about dest?

```sql
sqlite> SELECT dest, count(*) FROM flights WHERE dest = "LAX";
dest  count(*)
----  --------
LAX   16174
Run Time: real 0.017 user 0.016513 sys 0.000237
```

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN SELECT dest, count(*) FROM flights WHERE dest = "LAX";
QUERY PLAN
`--SCAN flights USING COVERING INDEX flights_orig_dest
```

--

```sql
sqlite> SELECT dest, count(*) FROM flights WHERE dest = "LAX" AND origin = "EWR";
dest  count(*)
----  --------
LAX   4912
Run Time: real 0.003 user 0.000729 sys 0.000778
```

```sql
sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN  SELECT dest, count(*) FROM flights WHERE dest = "LAX" AND origin = "EWR";
QUERY PLAN
`--SEARCH flights USING COVERING INDEX flights_orig_dest (origin=? AND dest=?)
```

---

## Group bys

.pull-left[ .small[
```sql
sqlite> SELECT carrier, count(*) FROM flights GROUP BY carrier;

carrier  count(*)
-------  --------
9E       18460
AA       32729
AS       714
B6       54635
DL       48110
EV       54173
F9       685
FL       3260
HA       342
MQ       26397
OO       32
UA       58665
US       20536
VX       5162
WN       12275
YV       601
Run Time: real 0.172 user 0.114274 sys 0.018946

sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN SELECT carrier, count(*) FROM flights GROUP BY carrier;
QUERY PLAN
|--SCAN flights
`--USE TEMP B-TREE FOR GROUP BY
```
] ]

--

.pull-right[ .small[
```sql
sqlite> CREATE INDEX flight_carrier ON flights (carrier);
Run Time: real 0.131 user 0.113260 sys 0.014691
```

```sql
sqlite> SELECT carrier, count(*) FROM flights GROUP BY carrier;
carrier  count(*)
-------  --------
9E       18460
AA       32729
AS       714
B6       54635
DL       48110
EV       54173
F9       685
FL       3260
HA       342
MQ       26397
OO       32
UA       58665
US       20536
VX       5162
WN       12275
YV       601
Run Time: real 0.023 user 0.022521 sys 0.000411

sqlite> EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN SELECT carrier, count(*) FROM flights GROUP BY carrier;
QUERY PLAN
`--SCAN flights USING COVERING INDEX flight_carrier
```
] ]

---

## Why not index all the things?

* As mentioned before, creating an index requires additional storage (memory or disk)

* Additionally, when adding or updating data - indexes also need to be updated, making these processes slower (read vs. write tradeoffs)

* Index order matters - `flights (origin, dest)`, `flights (dest, origin)` are not the same and similarly are not the same as separate indexes on `dest` and `origin`.


